Lecture 5: Print culture 1

The term ‘late age of print’ comes from the media theorist Marshall McLuhan which began around 1450.

Art schools during this time taught painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry all as separate disciplines as there was a very obvious divide between the ‘high’ arts and all of the other disciplines.

Between 1760 and 1840 there was the industrial revolution which evolved a more divided class system and the working class was formed. The working class expanded from the countryside and into the city so that they could be closer to the factories that were providing their income. The majority of products produced during this time now came from mechanised machines and were produced in mass.

The working classes communed together and created new forms of popular entertainment such music forms, new forms of art; of which the upper classes looked down on it and considered it to be ‘low’ art.

John Martin (1820) was one of the first artists who decided not to work for one paying client and instead put his work in a commercial exhibition and charged a large number of people an entrance fee to see his work.

Mass image culture

The mechanised machines allowed for the mass production of images, allowing a large number of people to have copies of the artworks and not just the privileged few. This began to annoy the upper classes as they believed that the importance of art had been lowered. Matthew Arnold (1867) said that culture is the best that has been thought and said in the world. It is the study of perfection and can be attained through disinterested reading, writing thinking.

Culture vs popular culture

Leavisism says that culture has always been in minority keeping and now the working class have begun to ruin the status of culture by mass producing artwork. The art/prints/comics created have sparked an addiction and created conversation, whereas art makes you think about your surroundings and the current problem/events in the world. The working classes approach to art as an entertainment is more appealing as it is a lot more positive and leads to socialisation.

‘AURA’ + the politics of print

Walter Benjamin explores ‘The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction’ (1936) and questions how art responds to the popular culture of design and how it preserves itself? Fine art is thought to keep the creativity, eternal value, tradition, authority, authenticity and mystery that technological reproduction of art cannot provide, known as the aura. Writers and philosophers make art seem more important than it is, telling you how to feel about the art/artist, focusing on the sublime which is seen to be greater than humanity

Contemporary print culture

Artwork outside of the gallery (cultic place where you worship the talent) is adapted and almost made a mockery of as the increased use of new technology is allowing us to attack the traditional culture.

Philip James de Loutherbourg introduced a new form of art based on perspective as it is framed, but there are actors and moving objects in the gap etc.

The panorama, made famous by Thomas Hornor (1829), is a photographic mapping of the world as if you are a God. These became more popular than pieces of art as they allowed for an immersive experience.

Photography meant that there was no need for portrait painting now as it was much cheaper, quicker and accurate than hiring a painter.

Print capitalism

This is the idea that images are made for the purpose of profit and the system evolved from the industrial revolution, with its own rules which replace culture with popular culture. Popular culture is not answering to an elite force, is responsive, new and original, dynamic and exciting, and affordable.

William Morris (1877) said that decorative arts are sick because of a division of labour. He noticed the mechanical vs. intellectual approach to artwork and printmaking and highlighted that the craft worker was reduced to a mere labourer.

Lecture 4: Production & Distribution of Type History 2

It has become clear that over time graphic designers have no set approach to the publication of typography as many rules and ideas have been created, but the most interesting and noticeable work is that that has broken the rules and expectations of design. Our role as graphic designers is the take the knowledge from the past and redesign the future.

Once only an oral tradition, language has now developed into being a lot more visual focused and the physical representation of objects and emotions has developed over the years. 

“typography is a communication method that utilises a gathering or related subjects and methodologies that includes sociology, linguistics, psychology, aesthetics" - Shelley Gruendler 

As designers, the Bauhaus still impacts the work we produce today because the purpose of why we are designing things has to be the main focus. The clarity in which something communicates an idea would need to be designed with the focus on form following function. We have the power to publish work that can heavily impact the way that others respond to a particular topic.  

The modernist approach to design would be the consideration of rules, but to manipulate them in ways that would advance the world of design. The breaking of these rules leads to the production of work that will grab people's attention because it will force them to think in a new way. 


A brief timeline of important design events:

• 1957 Max Miedinger and Eduard Hoffmann created the fit Helvetica which is important because the typeface became commonly used due to the neutrality of the typeface. Overtime, it bean to be associated with specific characteristics that have now impacted the use of it today. As graphic designers, the messages that could be portrayed by the use of this typeface would need to be considered.
• 25 years later Microsoft created Arial which was nearly an exact replica of Helvetica, but it meant that copyright rules could be ignored and less money would be spent on having the font on the system. 
• 1977 Jamie Reid introduced the visual culture of punk, going back to the time of Bauhaus system, but going against the grid systems and rules of typography. This represented the punk culture which was known to rebel against the ideals. 
• 1979 - Barbara Kruger's work pushed the boundaries of communication in modern art
• 1989 Tim Berners-Lee created the world wide web which enabled the ability to publish type to a large audience of people for free.
• 1990 October 15th, apple mac classic was released and because it was under $1000, designers were able to afford to have them in the studios. This allowed a much larger number of people to create typefaces and effects were applied to digitalise traditional printing methods.
• 1992 David Carson looked at the ways to represent information in the most appropriate way and what that information would communicate and the differences depending on the different layouts.
• 1994 Vincent Connare created comic sans, a sans-serif font. This font is known to be one of the worse fonts. 
• 1995 Bill Gates wanted to make money from it by introducing internet explorer which restricted the distribution of things because it only allowed for the use of 8 fonts and very few templates. 

Technology has had a positive impact on design and the distribution of ideas, but it has also negatively impacted the way in which we engage with long intellectual passages. The web does not allow for long documents to be easily formatted and published, so shortened and precise versions are uploaded in replace. This has effected how we read and process information, proving it to be a struggle when engaging with long passages of text. 

"...but all those short documents we’re reading instead are poisoning our ability to read long documents. " - John Clark

Technology changed the importance of the spoken word and calls to other countries became less and less common. Letters have been replaced with emojis which have become a global language as everyone can recognise the mean of each symbol. 

The role of a designer is to shape visual culture and consider the political, social and cultural impacts the work could have. We have the ability to shape the world and what people see. The visual materials we publish can impact the thoughts of many and we should use this in a positive way.

Studio Brief 1: Finding research sources

The quote I have chosen:

'Many studies have found that both women and men do not believe that their current body form is attractive... Research has repeatedly found that physically attractive individuals are perceived by most to be socially more desirable than those that are perceived as being unattractive, something that is likely to have been reinforced by consumer societies…'

The main themes I will be concentrating on in this essay are:

- men and women health advertisements

- obsessive behaviour about diets and slimming as only way to be seen as attractive

- consumer behaviour in regards to beauty and health products 

- adverts idealisms on image

- self comparisons and insecurities

I created a table of the the different resources that I have found that I can use as a starting point for my research into this topic.

LCA Library	The Beauty Myth: Naomi Wolf (2002) Media, Gender and Identity, an introduction: David Gauntlett (2nd edition)
Google Books (preview)	Consumer Psychology. New York: Jansson-Boyd (2010)
Articles/JStor	Dietary supplements advertised in muscle enthusiast magazines - analysis of marketing strategies: Danna Ethan, Covey H Basch, Alyssa Berdnik and Marsha Sommervil Gender representation in the crossfire journal - a content analysis, sport in society: Bobbi A.Knapp  Belk 1988 - possessions and the extended self Gender and cultural diversity in body image: Ronnie Moradi Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self-objectification and body image concerns: Amy Slater, Marika Tiggemann Gender, sexual orientation, and romantic partner influence on body image: Charlotte and Patrick N.Markey Post feminist media culture: elements of a sensibility: Rosalind Gill Media influence on drive for thinness and drive for Muscularity: Pritchard and Cramblitt
Websites	Blog on 'the self' Consumer behaviour and concept of the self http://www.womenshealthmag.co.uk https://yougov.co.uk/news/2013/11/20/size-12-britains-ideal-dress-size/ http://www.associationofmodelagents.org/what-it-takes-to-be-a-model/

Lecture 3: Production & Distribution of Type History 1

One principle of visual literacy states that for a language to exist, there must be an agreement that one thing will stand for another. 

Type is what language looks like.

Historical definitions of typography:

- The art and technique of painting with movable type
- The composition of printed material from movable type
- The arrangement and appearance of printed matter

These definitions are no longer accurate as they are based on the dated version of typography which was based on movable type that could be arranged for the machines to manually print the matter. A definition which applies to the modern idea of typography is 'the craft of endowing human language with a durable visual form'.

Symbols for objects

Language has been used since the beginning of time to communicate, but it was thought that in 7000BC, the first physical representation of language was found. The physical language was a range of symbols all representing different objects. The symbols were used to describe existing things and not emotions or experiences. 
We do not know the spoken language from before this time, but as "the written word endures... the spoken word disappears" (Neil Postman), we have been able to manipulate these symbols over time and create the alphabet we know today. 

Typography had to transform so that trade could take place between countries in order to communicate. This needed symbols that would be understood by a wide variety of cultures. 

William Foster 1870, introduced the Education Act which made it compulsory for people to learn how to read and not only the upperclass/religious people. The printing of text needed to be mass produced so that it could be read by large amounts of people, so hand lettering of newspapers and books become less common. 

Walter Grophius 1919 opened the Bauhaus, an institute for the drawing together of the arts and crafts for mass production. Typography was born as a discipline and making ways to make it unique was the main focus. The visual composition of Bauhaus posters started to be mastered. I found this part of the lecture interesting, as I think they communicate very visually well.

Studio Brief 1: Quote choice

The aim of studio brief 1 is to demonstrate the ability of triangulation and referencing within an essay. The essay is to be based on a quote which will spark ideas and form the theme of the essay. I have chosen two out of the twelve that were most interesting to me and then I will decide which one to continue with.

Malpas, S. (2005) The Postmodern. London: Routledge.

'We now live [...] in a knowledge-driven economy in which technological innovation and the ability to access and manipulate ideas rapidly is a key means of surviving, flourishing and making profits. As a result, we become consumers of a knowledge that has been transformed into a commodity…’

Research into how knowledge is the primary driving force of culture and social exchange would be important to consider, showing animalistic traits or having to have knowledge as a means of survival. The manipulation of ideas would be an interesting subject to explore as it closely links with graphic design. It would be interesting to see how this could generate profits and survival. 

Mass communication and mass media may influence what we think we should buy and how we should approach different situations depending on what level of knowledge we have.  

Key terms: Postmodernism, postmodernity, information age, knowledge-driven economy, internet, mass communication, mass media

Jansson-Boyd, C. (2010) Consumer psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Education.

'Many studies have found that both women and men do not believe that their current body form is attractive... Research has repeatedly found that physically attractive individuals are perceived by most to be socially more desirable than those that are perceived as being unattractive, something that is likely to have been reinforced by consumer societies…'

To approach this quote, the research would need to be based on gender representations in the media, advertising and branding. This would make evident what is seen to be attractive and then the links can be made to why people are left to not feel attractive. The self would need to be explored so that it could be concluded as to whether or not this has an impact on how we view ourselves as either attractive or not. The comparison to others is a large factor influencing how we feel about ourselves because if we do not much those that are shown to be desirable in a number of adverts and social media, then we would begin to feel inadequate.

Research into the consumer society and how this influences what products people buy, to make them look and feel a certain way about themselves. 

It would also be important to consider the difference between genders in the media and how it portrays each gender to be to be deemed attractive. Health magazines, adverts and websites would be interesting at revealing this as there are a lot of strong opinions on how we should lead healthy lifestyles - is it for the image of our bodies, or the health of our minds?

Key terms: Gender, body image, gender and advertising, gender and the media, gender representation, gender and branding, gender and consumer society

Lecture 2: A 20,000 Year Non-Linear History of the Image

Figure 1

Figure 2

‘A 20,000 Year Non-Linear History of the Image’ was a initiatory lecture on the history of the image. The cave paintings in Lascaux Caves, France were the first recorded medium of ‘visual communication’ (figure1) , but even more contemporary artists now such as Cy Twombly displays the use of pure mark making (figure 2). I thought it was  interesting that the markings in the caves could have been an attempt to communicate with power, relating to todays work in the sense that an artist produces visual messages and expressions, with the aim that a large amount of people will take notice. The power of communication is something to bare in mind when designing as the artist needs to ensure that the correct message is being conveyed to the audience and that it is being delivered in an appropriate context.

Figure 3

The power of influence was something discussed as a theory suggests that art galleries tell us how we should feel about a piece of work. The quiet and appreciative behaviour in which we are supposed to adopt when in a gallery, instantly lead us to believe that work being displayed is of great importance and that we should show some elements of worship towards it. Artists such as Rothko are particularly talented at  communicating emotions and evoking physical feelings by only using one or two colours. The rooms (figure 3) displaying his pieces of work have to be isolated away from other paintings as the walls are the only ones in the gallery that are a slight grey, the temperature is slightly cooler, the lights are dimmer and the paint does not allow for a reflection to be seen at all. The stories that surround these paintings and the story of Rothko’s suicide may be the reason that many of the viewers do leave in tears. The viewers may subconsciously think they must feel these particular emotions.

Figure 4

The idea of art galleries telling us to see certain pieces of art to be a higher level of importance compared to others is very clearly demonstrated in The Louvre, Paris.  At the entrance, immediately there are signs directing people to the room that the Mona Lisa is in. We were asked to question if we think the viewers thought it was important because of the skill of the artist, or because they were told that they should see it as an important painting. Personally I think it is them being told - the painting is protected by bulletproof glass and advertised as the most important painting in the gallery, so the visitors will automatically feel obliged to appreciate this painting over the others in the gallery. 

Figure 4 clearly illustrates the scale of the crowds that gather around the painting to take photos and post all over social media. A variety of theorists have stated that an experience hasn't been experienced until it has been documented on social media.

Lecture 1: Visual Literacy - The language of design

As designers it is our job to communicate through a variety of type, image and motion. These ideas and opinions need to effectively portray the given message to different audiences in a range of contexts. The process of visual communication is the sending and receiving of messages using type and images. As designers, we produce work with the assumption that everyone has the same understanding of signs, symbols, gestures and objects. The way in which it is distributed and received can distort the message which was trying to be portrayed. 

Figure 1

Visual literacy is the ability to interpret, negotiate and make meaning from information presented in the form of an image. The interpretation can be based on present, past pr cultural references; but must still be effective when communicating a message to an audience. Visual literacy has 10 main principles. The first principle of visual literacy is the ability to interpret, negotiate and make meaning from information presented in the form of an image. This relies on the cognitive process of recognition (figure 1) which we will have developed in our social environment and cultural upbringing.

Figure 2

The second principle is that pictures can be read. A global language is developed through symbols and images in which we can interpret the meaning very easily. We begin to develop the ability to read images before we actually learn to read words. Figure 2 shows universal images that we can interpret as directions of how to take a tablet and how often throughout the day.

Figure 3

The third principle of visual literacy is made up of the presentational symbols whose meaning results from their existence in particular contexts. An example of this is the cross, which as a stand alone shape could present a church, first aid, pharmacy or helicopter pad. But then when put it into context or surround it with other symbols that are part of the same subject, we can begin to differentiate which one it may be representing. Figure 3 shows that until the cross is grouped with other symbols, it may not have been evident that it was representing a religion.

The fourth principle of visual literacy is that for any language to exist, it is necessary for an agreement amongst a group of people that one thing will stand for another. This goes back to the example about the cross and how it is the same shape, but changed slightly and used in different contexts, it can mean something completely different.

The fifth principle requires an awareness of the relationship between visual syntax and visual semantics.

The sixth is the syntax of an image which is the reference to the pictorial structure and visual organisation of elements. It represents the basic building blocks of an image that affect the way we ‘read’ it. An example of this is the presentation of food in a picture. This image would trigger how we think the restaurant will be, the quality of the food we would expect to receive, the price we would pay, the healthiness and also the cleanliness. 

Visual semantics is the seventh principle and the semantics of an image refers to the way an image fits into a cultural process of communication. It includes the relationship between form and meaning and the way meaning is created. It is how it fits into context and this could be cultural, geographical etc. 

How do we make an image (syntax) and where do we put it (semantics)?

Principle eight of visual literacy is semiotics which is the study of signs and sign processes, how we interpret signs. This principle is closely related to the field of linguistics, which studies the structure and meaning of language, but also the principle looks at non-linguistic systems such as visual language and visual literacy.

The visual elements of semiotics include:

• symbol - logo to symbolise the company.
• sign - identity to show the particular company that is producing the products.
• signifier - the brand and how that signifies the quality, innovation, creativity, design and lifestyle.
• metaphor - used to transfer the meaning from one image to another, conveying an impression about something relatively unfamiliar and associating it with something familiar. 
• metonym - reference to something visual to something with a more literal meaning e.g. yellow taxi in New York.
• synecdoche - a part of something to represent a whole e.g. statue of liberty to represent New York. (only works if universally recognised)

Figure 4

Principle nine is the concept of ‘working the metaphor’. This means that every object has the capacity to stand for something other than what is apparent, working on what it stands for. 

Figure 4 shows the image at the end of the lecture which I find very relatable as I have witnessed numerous conversations with this as the main topic and how symbols and everyday objects have started to represent lots of ideas and products that do not initially even relate to the object. It is the power of branding and conditioning which now makes us instantly associate any image of an apple with the brand Apple.